1. The Moro Wars
The arrival of the Spaniards in the second half of the 16th century and the
subsequent conquest of Luzon and the Visayan Islands led the Muslims to retreat to the
south. There they defended and maintained their independence from foreign powers
almost to the end of the Spanish regime. The conflict between the Muslims and the
Spaniards became known as the Moro Wars. It was a series of bitter wars of attrition
that spanned more than three centuries. There are six stages of the conflict.
The first stage was the period of struggle between Brunei and Spain over political
and commercial supremacy in the Philippines. Spain gained a secure foothold in the
Philippines during this period. It was during this time that Rajah Soliman, the first
Muslim Gatpuno of Manila lost to Martin de Goiti, the first Spaniard to set eyes on
Manila as a Muslim kingdom in 1571. Spain gained full control of Manila with the
defeat of Rajah Lakandula, the Muslim king of Tondo in 1578. This stage ended with
the Spanish attack on Brunei causing Bornean influence in the Archipelago to wane.6
Attempts of the Spaniards to establish a colony in Mindanao characterized the
second stage of the 'Moro wars'. The Spaniards also tried to reduce the rulers of Sulu,
Maguindanao, and Buayan into vassalage. They tried to prohibit these rulers from admitting Muslim preachers and persuaded them to accept Christian missionaries. The
Spaniards failed to colonize and Christianize the people of Mindanao, instead the
designated Governor for Mindanao was killed in 1596.
The early part of the seventeenth century marked the third stage of the 'Moro
wars'. The Spaniards tried to gain control over the Visayas from the combined forces
of the Maguindanao and Buayan sultanates. The Moros resorted to capturing Christian
Filipinos and enslaving them to weaken the resolve of the Filipino to side with the
Spaniards. In using the slaves as boat rowers, the Moro war machine became stronger.
In the fourth stage the Spaniards decided to conquer the sultanates in Mindanao
and Sulu. Military expeditions launched by the Spaniards relied heavily on the use of
the people that they conquered and Christianized. Thus, the Christian Filipinos were
made to fight the Moros for the glory of Spain and the Christian faith. The Spaniards
resorted more and more to the practice of burning Moro settlements, plantations, fields
and orchards. Captured Muslims were forced to work on the Spanish galleys.
In Mindanao, Sultan Kudarat who held sway over the Maguindanaos from
Sibuguey Bay to the Gulf of Davao, fought the incursions of the Spaniards into his
domain. He consolidated his power by uniting the warring warlords in the Pulangi area,
took the title of Sultan and declared a Jihad or Holy war against the colonizers.
In a gathering of Maranao datus and sultans in 1623, Sultan Kudarat, delivered
the noblest sentiments of the Muslim people. He urged the Maranaos to continue
fighting the Spaniards for encroaching on their ancient liberty and lovely lands. This
speech preserved for us by Spanish chronicles reads:
You men of the lake, forgetting your ancient liberty, have
submitted to the Castillans. Submission is sheer stupidity. You cannot
realize to what your surrender binds you. You are selling yourselves to
toil for the benefit of these foreigners.
Look at the regions that have already submitted to them. Note how
abject is the misery to which their peoples are now reduced. Behold the
condition of the Tagalogs and of the Bisayans whose chiefs are trampled
upon by the meanest Castillans. If you are no better spirit than them, then
you must expect similar treatment. You, like them, will be obliged to row
the galleys. Just as they do, you have to toil at the shipbuilding and labor without ceasing on the other public works. You can see for yourselves that
you will experience the hardest treatment thus employed.
Be men. Let me aid you to resist. All the strength of my
sultanate, I promise you shall be in your defense.
What matters if the Castillans at first are successful? That means
only the loss of a year's harvest. Do you think that is too dear a prize to
pay for liberty?7
Incessant operations of the Spaniards led to the fall of Sultan Kudarat's capital in
Lamitan, Basilan in 1637. The Sultan and his people retired to the interior and adopted
a policy of minimum confrontation with the Spaniards. This policy was adopted to
prevent the extermination of the Maguindanaos as a people. The following year the
Sultan of Sulu's strong hold in Jolo also fell. The Sulus followed the course of action
of the Maguindanaos of retiring to the interior or transferring to other islands to avoid
extermination by the Spaniards. Although the Spaniards captured the strongholds of the
two sultans, the threat of Muslim retaliation led them to make peace with Maguindanao
in 1645 and with Sulu in 1646. The treaty between the Spaniards and Maguindanao
recognized the sphere of influence of Sultan Kudarat covering the area from Sibuguey
(just off Zamboanga City) to the Davao Gulf and extending to the interior including most
of the Maranao territory, and to the inhabitants of the upper reaches and tributary stream
of the Pulangi river. The treaty with the Sulus called for the departure of the Spaniards
from the island of Jolo.
War between the Maguindanaos and the Spaniards resumed in 1656. It was
precipitated by Spanish provocations in territories tributary to Sultan Kudarat and
continuous efforts to convert the people to Christianity. The Koxinga threat to Manila
forced the Spaniards to abandon the Zamboanga fort in 1663. There was relative peace
between the Spaniards and the Moros for the next fifty years.
The fifth stage of the 'Moro Wars' started with the rearming of Zamboanga in
1718. In an attempt to reduce the Muslims as vassals, the Spaniards tried to convert the
sultans of Sulu and Maguindanao. Conversion of the datus and other subjects was the next step. The plan did not materialize. The Moros reacted by launching a devastating
attack on the northern and central islands of the Philippines. Moro raids caused
widespread disruption of the economic life in the areas under the Spanish colonial
regime. In response to the Spanish policy of enslaving captured Muslims, the Moros
retaliated by taking thousands of captives in the Visayan islands. In time the word
"Moro" evoked hatred and terror, especially to people living along the coasts. While the
Christian Filipinos relied on Spain for protection from their dreaded enemy, the Moros
turned more to each other and to their neighbors in Sumatra and Borneo.8
The sixth stage of the 'Moro wars' occurred in the nineteenth century when Sulu
became the focus of European rivalry. French interest to establish a naval base in
Basilan in the 1850's and renewed trade interest of the British alarmed the Spaniards.
An expedition to Sulu in 1851 resulted in the capture of the capital of Jolo and claim
over Sulu as a Spanish protectorate. Muslims however interpreted the resultant peace
terms to represent merely a declaration of firm friendship between two sovereign powers.
In spite of the treaty, the Sulu Sultan acted as independently as before. On the other
hand Spain used the Treaty to prevent rival European powers from entering into treaties
with Sulu. In the 1870's, the Spaniards made a more serious attempt to conquer Sulu.
They established permanent garrisons in the island. Use of their modern navy in the
campaign gave the Spaniards the edge to capture Jolo in 1876. The Sultan subsequently
retired to the interior of the island. The sultan of Sulu capitulated to the Spaniards in
1878, but Spanish control over the Moros was never complete.9
The 'Moro Wars' had a great deal of influence on the course of Philippine
history. The conflict caused a deep implantation of hatred and prejudices between the
Muslim and Christian Filipinos that divided them for a long time. Although the Muslims
were not sympathetic to the national aspirations of the Christian Filipinos in 1896-89, the
Moro Wars was instrumental in sapping the strength of the Spanish forces. It also prevented the Spaniards from concentrating their forces in Luzon. This created a
situation favorable to the formation of the Filipino revolutionary movement. The conflict
also contributed to the cause of discontent for Christian Filipinos against Spain. In spite
of the heavy taxes and forced labor provided by them to support the campaign against
the Muslims, the Spaniards failed to protect Christian settlements from Muslim ravages.
2. Revolution of 1896
On 26 August 1896, in the spirit of nationalism and as a protest against the abuse
of the colonizers, Filipinos led by Andres Bonifacio revolted against Spanish colonial rule
in Manila. The revolution proved to be the unifying event that brought about the national
consciousness among the Filipinos.10
General Emilio Aguinaldo took over the leadership of the Filipino insurgents on
March 1897, when he was elected president in the convention held at Tejeros, Cavite.
After suffering heavy losses in the fight against Spanish troops, Aguinaldo was forced
to open armistice negotiations with the Spanish governor. An agreement was reached
in mid-December in which the governor paid P800,000 to Aguinaldo and in return he and
his government voluntarily went into exile. Aguinaldo chose HongKong as his place of
exile because of its proximity to the Philippines. In time, Aguinaldo got in touch with
Commodore George Dewey, who headed the United States Navy's Asiatic Squadron and
tentative negotiations on possible alliances were held.
It is interesting to note that on January 1, 1898, General Aguinaldo tried to solicit
the participation of the Muslims of Sulu and Mindanao in the fight against Spain by
sending a proposal to them saying that he is empowered to "negotiate with the Muslims
of Sulu and Mindanao to establish national solidarity on the basis of a real federation
with absolute respect for their beliefs and traditions."11
The proposal was the first recorded attempt of the Filipino government to deal
with the Muslims based on absolute respect for their beliefs and traditional institutions
without the usual Spanish undertone of eventually changing their ways of life and
converting them to Christianity. There was no recorded reaction of the Muslims to this
Aguinaldo proposal.
3. The Spanish American War
The conflict between the United States and Spain that spun off from the U.S.
endorsement of Cuban independence broke out into open war with the declaration of war
by the US congress on 25 April 1898.12 The Philippines got entangled in the conflict
when Commodore George Dewey's Asiatic Squadron attacked and destroyed the Spanish
Fleet at Manila bay on 30 April.
General Aguinaldo was in Singapore when war was declared. He was then
conferring with Mr. E. Spencer Pratt, the American consul general on possible Filipino-
American collaboration against Spain. Aguinaldo rushed to HongKong to join Dewey,
but missed the latter who had already departed for Manila Bay. Dewey had to dispatch
the revenue cutter 'McCulloch' to fetch Aguinaldo from HongKong, returning to the
Philippines on 19 May 1898. Aguinaldo's arrival delighted Dewey and he gave to the
former the arms and supplies captured from the Spaniards in Cavite. Aguinaldo
immediately reassumed command of the rebel forces and resumed the fight against the
Spaniards. The Filipino insurgents overwhelmed the demoralized Spanish garrisons
around Manila. Links were established with other movements throughout the islands.13
Aguinaldo was led to believe by Consuls Pratt and Wildman and Admiral Dewey
that the United States had come to liberate the Filipino people from Spanish oppression
and that she would recognize the independence of the Philippines. According to him,
America's recognition of Philippine Independence was promised in return for Filipino
collaboration in the fight against Spain.14
On June 12,1898, General Emilio Aguinaldo proclaimed Philippine independence
at his headquarters in Kawit, Cavite.15 In the fight against Spain, the Filipinos believed
their relationship with the United States was that of two allies fighting a common enemy.
Aside from providing intelligence information on the enemy's disposition and strength,
the Filipino troops numbering 12,000 kept the Spanish force bottled up inside Manila.
This gave the Americans time to await the arrival of reinforcements and build up their
strength. During this period, Aguinaldo tried to get a written commitment of support for
Philippine Independence from the Americans but was ignored.
When sufficient reinforcements arrived, Dewey's forces assaulted Manila on 13
August 1898 to force the surrender of the Spaniards defending the city. Aguinaldo was
told that his army could not participate in the operation to capture Manila and would be
fired upon if it crossed into the city. The insurgents were infuriated at being denied
triumphant entry into their own capital, but Aguinaldo bided his time.
The Treaty of Paris signed on 10 December 1898, transferred sovereignty of the
Philippines to the United States. There had been no previous US demand for annexation
before the war. However, many Americans afflicted with expansionist fever because of
Dewey's small victory in Manila made strong representations to take over control of the
Philippines. Pondering over the alternatives, President McKinley later explained to
some visiting Methodist how he arrived at his decision to annex the Philippines:
And one night late it came to me this way-1 don't know how it was, but
it came: (1) that we could not give them back to Spain- that would be
cowardly and dishonorable; (2) that we could not turn them over to France
or Germany- our commercial rivals in the Orient- that would be bad
business and discreditable; (3) that we could not leave them to themselves-they were unfit for self-government- and they would soon have anarchy
and misrule over there worse than Spain's was; and (4) that there was
nothing left for us to do but to take them all, and to educate the Filipinos,
and uplift and civilize and Christianize them, and by God's grace do the
very best we could by them, as our fellowmen for whom Christ also died.
And then I went to bed, and went to sleep and slept soundly.16
President McKinley issued a proclamation on 21 December 1898, declaring
American policy on the Philippines to be one of "benevolent assimilation" in which "the
mild sway of justice and right" would be substituted for "arbitrary rule".
6 Ibid., p. 1.
7 Glang, Alunan, Op. cit., p. 9.
8 Gowing and McAmis., Op. cit., p. 8-9.
9 Ibid., p. 10.
10 Agoncillo, Teodoro, and Alfonso, Oscar, History of the Filipino People, Malaya
Books, Quezon City, 1967, pp. 240-241.
11 Glang, Alunan, Op. cit., p. 10.
12 Tindall, George with Shi, David., America: A Narrative History, W. W. Norton
and Company Inc., 1992, p. 911.
13 Zaide, Gregorio, Philippine Political and Cultural History, Vol. n, Philippine
Education Company, Manila, 1957, p. 185.
14 Ibid., p. 184.
15 Karnow, Stanley, In Our Image, America's Empire in the Philippines, Ballantine
Books, New York, 1989, p. 117.
16 Tindal and Shin, Op. cit., p. 926.
